Archive for the ‘Ancient Egypt’ Category

From the 11th dynasty 2125-1991 BC to the 17th dynasty 1650-1550 BC

Egyptian dating is expressed by ruling families – dynasties. The historian Manetho (270 BC) wrote a history of Egypt giving the number of dynasties, the number of kings, their names and the length of each reign.

11th dynasty 2125-1991 BC
* Intef I
* Intef II
* Intef III
* Mentuhotep I
* Mentuhotep II
* Mentuhotep III

12th dynasty 1991-1782 BC

* Amenemhet I
* Sesostris I
* Amenemhet II
* Sesostris II
* Sesostris III
* Amenemhet III
* Amenemhet IV
* Queen Sobeknefru

13th dynasty 1782-1650 BC

* Wegaf
* Intef IV
* Hor
* Sobekhotep II
* Khendjer
* Sobekhotep III
* Neferhotep I
* Sobekhotep IV
* Ay
* Neferhotep II

14th dynasty

* Lasted for around
57 years

15th dynasty 1650-1550 BC

* Sheshi
* Yakubher
* Khyan
* Apepi I
* Apepi II

16th dynasty 1650-1550 BC

* Anather
* Yakobaam

17th dynasty 1650-1550 BC

* Sobekemsaf
* Intef VII
* Tao I
* Tao II
* Kamose

11th dynasty 2125-1991 BC

* Intef I
* Intef II
* Intef III
* Mentuhotep I
* Mentuhotep II
* Mentuhotep III

12th dynasty 1991-1782 BC

* Amenemhet I
* Sesostris I
* Amenemhet II
* Sesostris II
* Sesostris III
* Amenemhet III
* Amenemhet IV
* Queen Sobeknefru

13th dynasty 1782-1650 BC

* Wegaf
* Intef IV
* Hor
* Sobekhotep II
* Khendjer
* Sobekhotep III
* Neferhotep I
* Sobekhotep IV
* Ay
* Neferhotep II

14th dynasty

* Lasted for around
57 years

15th dynasty 1650-1550 BC

* Sheshi
* Yakubher
* Khyan
* Apepi I
* Apepi II

16th dynasty 1650-1550 BC

* Anather
* Yakobaam

17th dynasty 1650-1550 BC

* Sobekemsaf
* Intef VII
* Tao I
* Tao II
* Kamose

The Middle Kingdom begins with the reunification of the country under Mentuhotep I who ousted the kings of Herakleopolis.

He assumed the Horus name Divine of the White Crown, implicitly claiming all of Upper Egypt. This was later changed to Uniter of the Two Lands.

His remarkable mortuary complex at Dayr al-Bahri was the architectural inspiration for Hatshepsut’s temple which was built alongside some 500 years later

Amenemhet I moved the capital back to the Memphis. There was a revival of Old Kingdom artistic styles.

He later took his son, Sesostris as his co-regent. During the 10 years of joint rule Sesostris undertook campaigns in Lower Nubia which led to its conquest. Amenemhet was murdered during Sesostris’ absence on a campaign in Libya, but Sesostris was able to maintain his hold on the throne and consolidated his father’s achievements,

Sesostris III reorganised Egypt into four regions the northern and southern halves of the Nile Valley and the eastern and western Delta. He and his successor Amenemhet III left a striking artistic legacy in the form of statuary depicting them as ageing, careworn rulers.

It was during this period that the written language was regularised in its classical form of Middle Egyptian. The first body of literary texts was composed in this form, although several are ascribed to Old Kingdom authors. The most important of these is the “Instruction for Merikare,” a discourse on kingship and moral responsibility.

Queen Sobeknefru, the first female monarch marked the end of the dynastic line.

The true chronology of the 13th dynasty is rather vague since there are few surviving monuments from this period. There were many kings who reigned for a short time, who were not of a single family and some were born commoners. The last fifty years represents a gradual decline. It seems that after the death of Ay, the eastern Delta broke away under its own petty kings (14th dynasty). There is even less known about this dynasty.

Asiatic immigration became widespread, the northeastern Delta being settled by successive waves of Palestinians.

The Second Intermediate Period
The Middle Kingdom fell because of the weakness of its later kings, which lead to Egypt being invaded by an Asiatic, desert people called the Hyksos.

These invaders made themselves kings and held the country for more than two centuries. The word Hyksos goes back to an Egyptian phrase meaning “ruler of foreign lands”.

The Jewish historian Josephus (1st century AD) mentions them. He depicts the new rulers as sacrilegious invaders who despoiled the land but with the exception of the title Hyksos they presented themselves as Egyptian kings and appear to have been accepted as such.

They tolerated other lines of kings within the country, both those of the 17th dynasty and the various minor Hyksos who made up the 16th dynasty.

The Hyksos, sometimes referred to as the Shepherd Kings or Desert Princes, sacked the old capital of Memphis and built their capital at Avaris, in the Delta. The dynasty consisted of five possibly six kings, the best-known being Apepi I, who reigned for up to 40 years.

Their rule brought many technical innovations to Egypt, from bronze working, pottery and looms to new musical instruments and musical styles. New breeds of animals and crops were introduced. But the most important changes was in the area of warfare; composite bows, new types of daggers and scimitars, and above all the horse and chariot. In many ways the Hyksos modernised Egypt and Ultimately Egypt was to benefit from their rule.

While the Hyksos ruled northern Egypt a new line of native rulers was developing in Thebes. They controlled the area from Elephantine in the south, to Abydos in the middle of the country.

The early rulers made no attempt to challenge the Hyksos but an uneasy truce existed between them. However, the later rulers rose against the Hyksos and a number of battles were fought.

King Tao II, also know as Seqenenre, was probably killed in one of these battles since his mummy shows evidence of terrible head wounds.

It was to be one of his sons Ahmose, the founder of the Eighteenth dynasty, who was to expel the Hyksos from Egypt.

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Cleopatra VII (69-30), last of the Ptolemies, was portrayed to Romans as an oriental femme fatale who had lured the great Roman general Mark Antony to his downfall. In fact Cleopatra was Greek in language, culture and background, and she relied more on her intelligence and charm to captivate Caesar and then Antony than on her physical beauty. She wanted to acquire and then keep the throne of Egypt, and used Egypt’s wealth to buy support of Roman armies.

Cleoptra won Caesar’s support against her brother Ptolemy XIII, supposedly her co-monarch, when he landed at Alexandria in 47BC. Legend say that Cleopatra was delivered wrapped in a carpet to Caesar’s headquarters and they began an affair. Later, she had a son, Caesarion, by him. This liaison so enraged Ptolemy’s supporters that they besieged the lovers in the palace. Part of the great library was burnt in the ensuing fighting, which led to Caesar installing her as sole monarch and a client of Rome. Cleopatra followed Caesar to Rome in 45BC, but returned to Egypt after his death.

When Antony met her, he was tempted as much by her wealth as her beauty, but he became her lover, the pair indulging in life of sensual pleasure in Egypt, much to the delighted horror of opinion in Rome. After Antony had publicly snubbed his wife, the sister of his rival Octavian, he donated some provinces to his and Cleopatra’s three children. Octavian’s propagandist used this evidence that Antony wanted to hand over the empire to Cleopatra – clearly not the act of a true Roman.

This famous love affair did not seem to affect Antony’s plans for Rome’s eastern frontier, but his political judgement was clouded. Instead of leaving Cleopatra behind when he assembled his tropps for the final showdown, Antony let her come with him, leading may of his men to desert, The doomed pair escaped from actium for a last winter love, but Octavian followed. Cleopatra cheated him of his final victory by committing suicide, traditionally from an asp’s bite, before she could be captured. Although Cleopatra may have affronted Octavian’s puritanical patriotism, she presented little military threat to Rome.
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Cleopatra in Her Time
(All dates are B.C.)

331B.C.

Alexander the Great, a Macedonian Greek, conquers Egypt and founds the city of Alexandria.

323B.C.

Following Alexander’s death, one his generals, a Macedonian Greek name Ptolemy becomes satrap of Egypt

305B.C.

Ptolemy names himself king, Plotemy I, founds a dynasty that will last 300 years.

69B.C.

Cleopatra is born to Ptolemy XII, the ruler nickname Auletes (flute-player). As the daughter of this highly in-bred line, the product of nince generations of intermarriges. Her genetic as well as her cultural heritage is not truly Egyptian but Greek.

51B.C.

At the age of 18, Cleopatra becomes queen of Egypt. Though formally married to her younger brother, as called for by tradition, she is in practice the first female Ptolemy to reign alone.

48B.C.

Caesar defeats Pompey at Pharsallus (in Greece) and becomes master of the Roman world. Cleopatra, who has backed Pompey, goes into exile. Caesar sails to Alexandria to collect a debt owed him by Cleopatra’s father and to restore her to the throne of Egypt. Cleopatra is smuggle into the palace some say rolled in a carpet to meet him. Caesar finds life in alexandria to his linking and settles in.

47B.C.

Cleopatra gives birth to her first child, name Ptolemy Caesar and nickname Caesarian (little Caesar). He is presumed to be Caesar’s son, though Caesar never officially acknowledges him as son.

46B.C.

Cleopatra has returned to Rome and Cleopatra meets him there. She and Caesarion take up residence in Caesar’s villa across the Tiber. While rumbling againt her in Rome grows louder. Egyptian appears in Roman clothes, hairstyles, art, and religion.

44B.C.

Caesar is assassinated on the Ides of March, Cleopatra having lost her ally and protector returns to Alexandria.

Antony and Octavian (later known as Augustus) are vying for control of the Roman Empire, Antony heads east to solidify his control and summons Cleopatra as a client queen to Tarsus, in what is not Turkey. She ignores a succession of letters from him, buy finally responds. She arrives on a royal barge, arrayed as Aphrodite reclining under a golden conopy. More than a Century later Plutarch described the scene: “…a barge with poop of gold, its purple sails billowing in the wind, while her rowers caressed the water with roars of silver which dipped in time to the music of the flute, accompanied by pipes and lutes…. and all the while an incredibly rich perfume, exhaled from innumerable censers, was wafter from the vessels to the river-banks.” Cleopatra returns to Egypt and Antony soons follows. Planning only to spend the winter, he instead stays with Cleopatra for a year, living a life of banquets, parties and other pleasures.

40B.C.

Cleopatra gives birth to twins by Antony: Cleopatra Selene (moon) and Alexander Helios (sun). Meanwhile, Antony reaches an agreement with Octavian and Lepidus and Marries Octavian’s sister, Octavia.

37B.C.

Drawn by love or politics or perhaps both-Antony returns to Cleopatra and marries her according to Egyptian practices, which allow polygamy. She supports his military campaigns with the wealth of Egypt, and he grants her territories in return.

36B.C.

Cleopatra gives birth to another son called Ptolemy Philadeiphus. Antony suffers serious military defeats; Cleopatra arrives with aid.

35B.C.

Cleopatra forges alliance with neighboring states.

34B.C.

Returning from a successful military campaign, Antony grants Cleopatra and her children many of the conquered territories, expanding from Epyptian Empire-though still as client of Rome. Octavian responds to these acts. “The Donations of Alexandri,” by spreading propaganda about this dangerous foreign mistress.

32B.C.

Antony repudiates his Roman wife, Octavia. Some closest friends desert him for Octavian. Octavian declares war against “the foreign woman” and the Roman propaganda campaign against her intensifies.

31B.C.

After a long stand-off on land and a Roman blockade at sea, Octavian’s great admiral, Agrippa attacks Antony’s fleet at Actium. Cleopatra’s ships slips through and flee. Antony follows and joins Cleopatra on her ship, where according to Plutarch, he sits in silence for days, his face burried with his hands.

30B.C.

Cleopatra and Antony try to negotiate with Octavian, seeking to protect her children and ensure the future of the Ptolemaic line. Octavian demands thats Cleopatra abdicate and have Antony executed; he makes further inroads into Egypt, up to the gates of Alexandria. Cleopatra retreats to her mausoleum.

Antony, hearing a rumor that she is dead, stabs himself with his sword. Dying, he is carried to the mausoleum to see Cleopatra; he is hauled in through the window by ropes. There, amid her lamentations, he dies in her arms.

Octavian holds Cleopatra prisoner, hoping to parade her in chains through the streets of Rome. But she is determined to die rather than suffer such humiliation. After visiting Antony’s tomb, she sends a final message to Octavian, asking to be laid besides her husband. Though Octavavian sends men to stop her, they are too late; she lies dead, wheather by an asp concealed in a basket of figs, or by the poisons she had carefully tested for months, or by some other means, we may never know. The tomb of Antony and Cleopatra has never been found.

Cleopatra and Mark Antony in HBO Rome portrayed by James Purefoy and Lynsdey Marshal

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